The 1968 Mexico City Olympic Games have had sport scientists’ minds racing for decades.  It was an Olympics where some records were smashed beyond comprehension, and others were completely untouchable.

Why? The answer is up in the air. Literally. Mexico City sits 2,240 metres above sea level where the high altitude and thin air can wreak havoc on the human body.

For Professor Chris Gore, Head of Physiology at the Australian Institute of Sport (AIS), understanding the effects of altitude has become a fixation.

“It’s been my passion for 15 years. I think it’s fascinating and I’m always trying to find new ways to help athletes and coaches use altitude training more effectively.”

Professor Chris Gore, Head of Physiology at the Australian Institute of Sport

So what happens to the air at high altitudes to affect our bodies so much?

Any given volume of air is comprised of 79% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen and 0.1% other gases such as argon and krypton. But as you get higher and higher above sea level, the pressure of the atmosphere decreases.

This is due to the effects of gravity (which keeps air close to the ground) and heat (as you get closer to the sun) which cause molecules to bounce off one other and expand. So as you reach higher altitudes, the air expands.

While the composition of the air stays the same, the expansion means that the air is ‘thinner’ – so in essence, at higher altitudes you inhale less oxygen and nitrogen molecules than you would at sea level.

This drives a cascade of physiological responses in the human body.  To begin with, your body increases its heart rate and respiratory rate to increase the amount of oxygen taken in and circulated around the body.  So for example, while an athlete might normally run with a heart rate of 150 beats per minute, at high altitude it might increase to 165.

Then the body begins to respond and adapt to the altitude (a process called acclimatization). More than 200 genes are turned on in response to altitude, and one that is most commonly thought of is that which induces the creation of more red blood cells thereby increasing the amount of hemoglobin in the blood.

Hemoglobin is the protein that binds oxygen molecules to red blood cells.  The more hemoglobin in the blood cells, the more efficient the cells will be at carrying oxygen around the body.  This means that even though less oxygen is taken into the lungs, it is more easily transported to the muscles.

Finally, as you breathe faster and faster, the amount of carbon dioxide in the blood is reduced, which leads to the blood becoming less acidic.  To counter this, the kidneys release blood bicarbonate to try to balance the PH level.  For athletes, this is a big advantage since blood bicarbonate is the primary source of protection for muscles against lactic acid – the waste that builds up during exercise and leaves muscles feeling stiff and sore.

While most of the scientific world has focused on the benefits of more haemoglobin following altitude training, Professor Gore and his colleagues have looked at the range of other effects.

His work has proven that muscle buffering capacity is improved and that blood lactate levels during exercise are lowered.  Additionally, the AIS scientists have found that athletes become more efficient after altitude exposure.  Just like high altitude natives, athletes are able to use less oxygen to do the same amount of work after they have been at simulated altitude.

The down side however, is that many of these physiological responses do not occur straight away.  It can take days, even weeks for the human body to fully adapt to the effects of altitude and for athletes to reap the benefits of better muscle protection and more efficient oxygen transportation.

Scientists have determined that at high altitudes of 2,400 meters plus, we inhale approximately three quarters of the amount of oxygen molecules that we would at sea level.  This decreases as you go higher.  As a reference, on the summit of Mount Everest (8,848m above sea level) we inhale only a third of the amount of oxygen we would at sea level, which is not enough to sustain human life. 

Altitude Training at the AIS

To simulate this low atmospheric pressure, enabling athletes to get the benefits of altitude training without having to travel to high altitude areas, scientists at the Australian Institute of Sport have developed an ‘altitude house’.

This house, comprised of 12 beds, bathroom, kitchen and a lounge, simulates what it would be like to live at high altitude.  The AIS recreate the low pressure atmosphere of 2500 metres by changing the composition of the air within the house to approximately 85% nitrogen and 15% oxygen. The air is not thinner, but the presence of less oxygen is physiologically equivalent to being at altitude.

Athletes from endurance sports like cycling, rowing, race walking and swimming live in the house for 3-4 weeks at a time, a couple of times a year.  At the same time, they maintain their standard training regime in the normal atmosphere in Canberra, which is 600 metres above sea level.

According to Professor Gore, this ‘live high, train low’ program enables athletes to reap the benefits of high altitude living, while still enabling them to train with the same intensity and frequency.

“Australia is at a disadvantage to other countries because we don’t really have big mountains for our athletes to live or train on, so the altitude house allows us to simulate what other countries have already,” Professor Gore said.

“And this way we get similar benefits from the altitude house that we would get from natural altitude by flying the athletes to train in say Europe, but without having to sacrifice their access to their physios, doctors, nutritionists, friends and family.”

Some athletes use the house as preparation for events where they will be competing at high altitudes.  Mainly however, coaches are using the ‘altitude’ house as a way to improve performance at sea-level events.

“By living in the house for 12 hours or so a day, the athlete’s red blood cell counts increase, their haemoglobin increases. As well, their muscle buffering capacity, ability to handle lactic acid and their efficiency also improves. They can then use these factors to their advantage in training and competitions.

“Overall, we’re talking about a 1-2% increase in performance, which mightn’t sound like much, but can be the difference between a medal and failing to qualify,” Professor Gore said.

But the effects don’t last forever.  For example, Professor Gore quotes a study where Kenyan runners who lived and trained in high altitude all their lives were taken to a low-altitude region of Germany to train.  After 6 weeks they runners had lost 5% of their haemoglobin showing a relatively fast de-adaptation[i].

“The verdict is still out, but we’re looking at benefits lasting for between 2-4 weeks for sea level athletes who return to normal sea level training.”

For Professor Gore, one of the most interesting things about altitude is its ability to both hinder and help athletes, depending on their event.

“In cycling for example, the thin air means there is less drag, and in short stints in particular, athletes’ ability to absorb oxygen is not badly affected.  This is true of almost all explosive events, including sprints, long jump and triple jump.

“But for endurance events, like the ones our altitude training athletes compete in, kayaking, rowing and race walking, they are hit hard by the lack of oxygen and the lack of air resistance means little,” Professor Gore concluded.

Professor Chris Gore in the Altitude House at the Australian Institute of Sport

[i] N. Prommer, S. Thoma, L. Quecke, T. Gutekunst, C. Volzke, N. Wachsmuth, A. M. Niess, and W. Schmidt. Total hemoglobin mass and blood volume of elite Kenyan runners. Med.Sci.Sports Exerc. 42 (4):791-797, 2010.

Dealing with epidemics can be a complicated and devastating task – the recent cholera outbreaks in Haiti and Papua New Guinea  are just one example of health workers pushed to their limits in an attempt to contain the disease.

Although well known diseases with existing treatments, like cholera, can erupt into epidemics, recent years have also seen global outbreaks of new pathogens including sudden acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and the H1N1 influenza (swine flu).

In these instances, the digital age of instantaneous communication played a significant role in the rapid and effective response to these outbreaks.Scientists across the world were able to share results almost instantly, creating a global digital laboratory. The causative pathogens were rapidly identified and the progress of the spread of the diseases was closely monitored and necessary instructions for containment were almost instantly available around the world.

But there is a delicate balance between scientific advancement and our modern lifestyles when it comes to susceptibility to the spread of epidemics.

Last year, a report  tabled at the Prime Minister’s Science, Engineering and Innovation Council looked at factors affecting the spread of epidemic diseases and how Australia might prepare for future outbreaks.

The report stated that the rate of mass public, local and international travel means a group of individuals can be exposed to a disease and spread to all corners of the globe long before the first symptom is reported to a doctor, let alone before a new disease and its potential ramifications are identified or understood.

Modern high-density living and food production methods are also quite literally a breeding ground for new infectious diseases.

Furthermore, increased desire for meat based diets means that humans are in closer contact with species such as pigs and birds which can be a source of potential pathogens. Higher density animal husbandry also means that multiple species can be in close contact in large numbers facilitating the transmission of diseases, in turn providing greater opportunity for mutation and the emergence of new and potentially more infectious strains.

All these factors mean that there is increased likelihood of serious epidemics to occur. The cause, geographic origin, severity, impact and other factors cannot be predicted.

Epidemics are not a modern phenomenon and have the potential to escalate. The Spanish Influenza pandemic which began in 1918 quickly swept the globe and resulted in more deaths in a shorter time than the World War which preceded it. It was a devastating pandemic at a time when viruses and how best to treat them were not yet well understood scientifically or medically.

Spanish Influenza is just one example of the many deadly outbreaks of infectious disease to hit the human race in recent centuries. In fact, even diseases that we now vaccinate against were once huge killers world wide like measles, polio and smallpox.

Small pox was a devastating illness that not only caused significant numbers of deaths, but also left many survivors with serious complications including disfiguring scarring and blindness.

It also represents a serious battle and one of the first major triumphs of science over an ancient disease which decimated populations and changed the course of human history.

Early observations showed that those who survived the disease were not susceptible to further infection. As a result, initial preventative treatment methods included inoculation – applying material from the sores of people with active illness under the skin of healthy individuals. This method usually resulted in a mild case of smallpox but one that still proved fatal in a number of cases, albeit it far less frequently than natural infection.

After a noticing a link between milkmaids who had been exposed to cowpox and immunity to smallpox, English scientist and country doctor, Edward Jenner, experimented with the use of cowpox as a vaccine. This was demonstrated, in what were arguably the world’s first clinical trial, to provide immunity without the risk of serious smallpox infection.

Even with vaccines, diseases with epidemic potential can be hard to eradicate Despite the fact that the breakthroughs in smallpox vaccination occurred in the 1700-1800s, it was not until 1980, after a global vaccination campaign, that the World Health Organisation was able to declare the world free of smallpox. This announcement was made by Australian scientist Professor Frank Fenner, who was chairman of the Global Commission for the Certification of Smallpox Eradication and played a key role in the investigations that proved the disease was gone.

To learn more about epidemics, or how Australia can prepare, you can download the report ‘Epidemics in a Changing World’ here.

Harnessing technology that has been used successfully to treat domestic dogs and cats, stem cells were isolated from the leopard’s own fat deposits and injected into the arthritic joint.

Stem cells are a special type of cell that can differentiate, or change, into many different cell types.

All cells in an organism are descended from stem cells. Through a complex mix of signals these all-purpose cells specialise to become all the different parts of our bodies, developing into everything we need, from liver and heart cells to bones and blood.

While most cells in an adult organism have already specialised, some stem cells are still present. For example, in our bone marrow, all the components of our blood (including red blood cells and all the different white blood cells) are regularly produced from a single type of stem cell to make sure we have all the blood cells we need.

In the case of Kamala the snow leopard, keepers and vets at the zoo hope her own stem cells will help to repair damaged cartilage in her knee which was caused by a rare disorder when she was only six months old. The idea behind the treatment is that Kamala’s stem cells can change into all the different cell types needed to help rebuild her damaged knee.

The cracked cartilage led to a case of osteoarthritis, which has not yet responded to existing treatments. For an animal that spends its time running over rocky terrain, a knee joint without its cushioning layer of cartilage can be a big problem.

While Kamala was under anaesthetic, zoo staff and specialist vets removed a lump of fat from her belly. Lab staff then treated the fat with enzymes that separated out all the fibrous connective tissue and left behind a collection of cells, including a high number of stem cells.

X-ray of the knee

Kamala before the operation

The stem cells are injected into the knee joint

Those stem cells were then injected into her knee joint where it is hoped they will stimulate repair of the damaged tissue and reduce the painful inflammation. The whole procedure is relatively fast, with only two hours of anaesthetic required, reducing the risk of complications for this endangered species.

Kamala is one of only about 700 snow leopards living in zoos and there are believed to be less than 7000 left in the wild. If the stem cell therapy is successful, Kamala will hopefully be a part of the zoo’s breeding program to bolster global numbers of her species.

This type of stem cell therapy is also being trialled in humans. It offers significant potential as a therapy because the cells are relatively easy to collect from a patient’s own body. Also, the use of a patient’s own stem cells removes the risk of rejection by the body’s immune system.

You can check out a video of the Kamala’s surgery here.

To learn more about Australia’s stem cell research efforts visit the Australian Stem Cell Centre website.

Photo credit: Marco Del Grande

Engineers at the University of California, Berkley have recently developed artificial skin that could one day mimic the touch and sensitivity of human skin necessary for a robot to undertake this delicate task[i].

They’re calling it ‘e-skin’ and researchers are suggesting it could help with one of the big challenges in robotics – the ability to sense the amount of force required to handle different objects, from fragile eggs to sturdy frypans.

But this research has far more exciting applications than building robots that can make scrambled eggs without smashing in parts of the shell. As technology linking artificial electronics to human nerves advances, it has enormous potential to restore the sense of touch for people with artificial limbs.

“The idea is to have a material that functions like the human skin, which means incorporating the ability to feel and touch objects,” said Ali Javey, Associate Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences and head of the UC Berkeley research team developing the artificial skin.

“If we ever wanted a robot that could unload the dishes, for instance, we’d want to make sure it doesn’t break the wine glasses in the process.  But we’d also want the robot to be able to grip a stock pot without dropping it.”

Previous attempts to make artificial skin have used organic materials (that are generally derived from once-living things) that are very flexible but not good electrical conductors.  The researchers at Berkley made a big advance by finding a way to make their e-skin out of artificial, inorganic substances that have the flexibility of organic material but are much better at conducting electrical signals.

Their advances relied on their ability to manipulate nanowires, structures so tiny that scientists ‘grow’ them atom by atom.  They are called nanowires because they can be as small as one nanometer, which is one billionth of a meter and many thousands of times narrower than a human hair.

To make e-skin, nanowires, made from germanium and silicon, are grown on the outside of a cylinder so they can be rolled in an ordered pattern onto material to form the base layer of the artificial skin.  The researchers involved have described this method as a high-tech lint roller in reverse.

In their recently published research, the engineers layered a seven by seven centimetre square of the nanowire matrix with touch sensitive rubber and demonstrated its ability to detect pressure in a range that we use everyday for things like typing on a keyboard.  They also proved it could still work after repeated bending, a durability that is a vital part of being able to successfully apply artificial skin to prosthetic limbs.

While seven centimetres may not sound like a large patch of e-skin, this is the first time ordered nanowires have been used in a functional system like this.

“This is the first truly macroscale integration of ordered nanowire materials for a functional system — in this case, an electronic skin,” said study lead author Kuniharu Takei.

“It’s a technique that can be potentially scaled up. The limit now to the size of the e-skin we developed is the size of the processing tools we are using.”

[i] Takei K, Takahashi T, Ho J C, Ko H, Gillies A G, Leu P W, Fearing R S and Javey A, 2010. Nanowire active-matrix circuitry for low-voltage macroscale artificial skin. Nature Materials; 10, 821-826.

By altering water temperature or current in a pool, bath or shower, the human body responds in a variety of ways – including fluctuations in core temperature, heart rate and metabolism and the widening (dilation) or constriction of blood vessels.

This use of water to improve body recovery is known as hydrotherapy and is becoming one of the most widely used practices in elite sport. Here, we find out how it works.

Dr Jo Vaile is only 28 years old but has already established a strong career as a Senior Recovery Physiologist for the Australian Institute of Sport (AIS). She uses a wide range of recovery techniques with AIS athletes such as hydrotherapy, compression and stretching to help elite Australian athletes perform the best their bodies are capable of.

Dr Jo Vaile of the AIS

“Exercise physiology is about understanding the complexities of how the body responds and adapts to the stress of exercise and how we can push the human body to new limits to enhance the likelihood of success,” Dr Vaile said.

“In sport, we constantly need to be ahead of the competition in order to succeed at an elite level where that one percent advantage over the opposition will make a difference between gold and silver,” she said.

In her day to day job, Dr Vaile individually assesses athlete’s physiological recovery requirements to ensure they can compete and train at their best one hundred per cent of the time.

“I love the challenge of creating a gold medal environment for each of the athletes I work with, while assessing and monitoring the body’s response to exercise to maximise their performance,” she said.

She is also responsible for conducting research, mainly into the effective use of hydrotherapy, explained below.

The human body responds to water immersion with changes in heart rate, blood pressure and blood flow.

Exposure to cold water causes a decrease in core body and tissue temperature which results in a reduction in blood flow to the extremities (muscles, hands, feet) because the body is trying to protect itself and conserve ‘body heat’.  To minimise the blood returning to the extremities the blood vessels constrict, heart rate slows down and blood pressure increases due to the constricted blood vessels.

At the AIS, athletes use cold water immersion in pools between 10-15 degrees Celsius, using the cold water to help decrease muscle inflammation, spasm and pain.

The 'ice-bath', normally kept at 10 degrees Celcius

In warm water, the body is exposed to heat which causes dilation of the blood vessels near the surface of the skin. The core body temperature starts increases and redirects more blood to the extremities. The dilation of blood vessels lowers blood pressure by allowing the blood to flow more freely with less resistance.

At the AIS however, hot water is rarely used on its own. In fact, one of the most effective athlete recovery systems to date is alternating immersion in hot and cold water.

According to Dr Vaile, ‘contrast water therapy’ can reduce swelling and muscle pain through a pumping action which is created by alternating blood vessel constriction and dilation. The pumping action helps to flush out waste products from the muscles that build up during exercise, such as lactic acid and minimises muscle tear.

“Contrast water therapy may bring about changes to tissue temperature, blood flow, blood flow distribution, may reduce muscle spasm, hyperaemia of superficial blood vessels and inflammation, as well as improving the range of motion and flexibility,” she said.

The hot-cold walk through showers of the AIS

In one recent study of twelve elite male cyclists, the athletes were put through rigorous training with the only difference being their recovery strategy. Over five days, the athletes completed four experimental trials differing only in recovery intervention: cold water immersion, hot water immersion, contrast water therapy, or passive recovery.

The study found that both sprint and time trial performance were enhanced when athletes utilised both cold water immersion and contrast water therapy, in comparison to hot water immersion and passive recovery. 

“Overall, the study found that cold water immersion and contrast water therapy improved recovery from high-intensity cycling when compared to hot water immersion and passive recovery, with athletes better able to maintain performance across a five-day period,” Dr Vaile said.

Dr Vaile is fascinated by hydrotherapy and after completing her Bachelor of Sport and Exercise Science, and went on to complete her PhD in the area.

“So many athletes implement hydrotherapy for recovery in the hope of assisting the recovery of muscle damage or fatigue and I think its fascinating that hydrotherapy has the potential to be beneficial, not only in terms of recovery, but also in improving  subsequent performance,” she said,

Dr Vaile is currently in the UK with the Rollers and Gliders – the Australian Men’s and Women’s wheelchair basketball team who are competing in the World Championships.

“Paralympic athletes are truly elite, they train and compete like any other athlete, but on top of that they face challenges every day in both sport and life due to their specific disability.”

Dr Vaile’s research into hydrotherapy earned her the European College of Sports Science Young Investigator Award and the John Sutton Best New Investigator Award at the Sports Medicine Australia Conference.

At the twentieth meeting of the Prime Minister’s Science Engineering and Innovation Council (PMSEIC) held on June 5 2009, an Expert Working Group presented a report titled Epidemics in a Changing World.  This report considered the factors that prompt the emergence of infectious diseases, and that alter the frequency, location and spread of disease in a changing global environment.  It was noted that humans are the key contributor to this change, through population growth, climate change and associated environmental impacts.

The report also identified that the infectious agents that cause such diseases constantly evolve. This makes the prediction of future threats very difficult — so we must expect to be surprised. The report identified several key ways for Australia to strengthen its capabilities to prevent and manage epidemics.

The Expert Working Group members came from a wide range of scientific disciplines and organisations.  Many of the members had been previously or were currently actively engaged in operations or research associated with animal or human epidemics in Australia and overseas.  They drew heavily on their extensive scientific knowledge and expertise in considering the topic, in fields including virology, entomology, epidemiology, medical science and veterinary science.

The recommendations

Science and innovation will provide the key to safeguarding Australia’s future. The report focused on ensuring that Australia is well placed to deal with the effect of global changes on the occurrence and spread of human and animal epidemic diseases.

The Expert Working Group noted that Australia’s current operational response to disease control is effective — and has been in recent times for disease events which have not resulted in major global epidemics.  The recommendations presented were seen as providing Australia with the preparedness and agility to cope with the unknown challenges of a future world that may provide a substantively different environment for epidemic disease.

In order to underpin Australia’s preparedness to deal with emerging epidemic diseases the Group recommended that:

1. Australia possesses the human capacity to combat potential epidemics

The nation must be prepared and sufficiently agile to deal with unexpected epidemics. This requires that we develop, maintain and retain skilled people through:

• conducting ongoing national workforce planning for expertise in human and animal epidemic diseases; and
• boosting higher education and research training in areas of need.

In order to provide early warning of the emergence of epidemic diseases the Group recommended that:

2. Australia possesses a long term biosecurity information collection, analysis and interpretation capability

Capability must be developed and maintained to collect, analyse and interpret disease surveillance information.   This must be secured by:

• creating an ongoing, effective national human and animal disease information system; and
• integrating this system with similar systems operating overseas.

In order to enhance Australia’s wider ability to deal with emerging epidemic diseases the Group recommended that:

3. Australia develops forward regional engagement to mitigate potential epidemic.

Australia needs to commit human and other resources to engage our region on disease surveillance, preparedness and mitigation, through capacity building and collaboration.  This requires that we develop political, scientific and technical relationships with our neighbours, at multiple levels, to reduce human and animal disease risk to Australia and the region by:

• establishing an active ongoing cross portfolio mechanism involving PM&C, DFAT, DoHA, DAFF, DIISR, DEEWR and other relevant agencies dedicated to managing and supporting effective regional engagement; and
• assisting regional countries to meet their obligations under the WHO International Health Regulations and the World Organisation for Animal Health requirements through:
  • supporting development of collaborative regional surveillance and early warning systems; and
  • developing regional expertise through professional training and higher education in Australia and in the region.

In order to secure the front-line defences needed to deal with emerging epidemic diseases the Group recommended that:

4. Australia has a self-sufficient vaccine development and production capacity

Australia needs to retain and enhance its onshore development and production capacity for vaccines. This is essential for domestic preparedness and, as importantly, to enable access to the latest overseas expertise and technology in this field.  The focus should be on the onshore development and production capacity for:

• contemporary influenza vaccines; and
• niche vaccines, particularly in the context of future Australian needs.

In order to better coordinate our ability to deal with emerging epidemic diseases the Group recommended that:

5. The Government establishes the cross-portfolio arrangements essential for effective implementation of Recommendations 1, 2 and 3 as a matter of immediate priority.

Please visit the PMSEIC website to view the full report.